Accountability as used in therapy

In most therapeutic settings today there is a dearth in the area of accountability. Therapists are not having patients take accountability as they go through the therapeutic process, specifically while working with domestic abuse patients. Accountability as it is being defined for this purpose is taking responsibility in a therapy situation; showing acknowledgement of wrong-doing or of mistakes, and owning up, in essence, to the actions that the individual has perpetrated. Most therapy with domestic abuse perpetrators is classified today by the cognitive-behavioral approach to therapy. At its basest this approach has the patient recognize negative and harmful thoughts and actions and then replace those actions and thoughts with positive actions and thoughts. This approach to therapy leaves room for accountability, but despite harsh language enforcing this ideal as exemplified by Stith, Rosen, McCollum, and Thomsen when they said “the aggressor must be help accountable” (2004,) there is still no accountability present in their therapeutic process. There is no call to being responsible for the actions and thoughts that the perpetrator engaged in. The goal is to simply identify what those negative thoughts and actions are, and then replace them, without ever holding these patients accountable for what was done. The results of this lack of accountability are shown in the success rates as defined in this study as those perpetrators who were still non-violent a year after the study. Those rates came in at a vague 50-80% with no accounting for the large range of 30% difference in their results. When patients are held accountable the success rate is magnified greatly and we see the real benefit that therapy can be.
When accountability is enforced in the therapeutic setting as studied by Jory, Anderson, and Greer in 1997 and later with Jory and Anderson in 2000 we can see how this approach greatly improves the therapy and healing process. These studies sought to make the patient recognize the behavior and then work through a process for being responsible for the things that they. They took accountability for the actions and thoughts that they had by various techniques including paradigm shifts, where they placed themselves in their victims shoes. The difference in this approach was that instead of simply identifying the poor behaviors and correcting them, they were made to recount what they did to their victims and then explain why they were wrong and how damaging it was. This approach allowed for true progress in their therapy. With this approach 37 of 40 participants in this study were non-violent and successfully completed their therapy. This is a much larger success rate at 92.5%
As accountability is introduced in the therapeutic process in domestic abuse cases we will see a large rise in the success of those patients involved. This holds a broader implication as well to all of therapy that can be applied. If we begin to approach all therapy with the enforcement of accountability then we will see even more success across the board.

Dissociative Identity Disorder: Fact or Fiction

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) formerly known as Multiple personality disorder (MPD) is a disorder that refers to a psychiatric condition characterized by two or more distinct personalities within an individual, each with their own behavior and complex social interactions The “alters” which take over at different times are said to occur spontaneously and involuntarily, and function more or less independently of each other. Memory and other aspects of consciousness and awareness are divided between the “alters” in the DID. The number of “alters” identified ranges from several to tens to hundreds. There are even some reports of several thousand identities dwelling in one person. In 1994, the American Psychiatric Association’s DSM-IV replaced the designation of MPD with DID: dissociative identity disorder. The label has changed to more fully reflect the dissociation aspect of the disorder.

There is considerable controversy over the validity of the multiple personality profile as a diagnosis. Unlike the more empirically verifiable mood and personality disorders, it is argued that dissociation is primarily subjective for both the patient and the treatment provider. It is said that some cases of MPD emerge spontaneously without input from the MPD community, while most cases of MPD have been created by therapists with the cooperation of their patients who have been influenced by authors and film makers.

The key feature of dissociative identity disorder is multiplicity. People with this disorder have more than one “I.” DID is distinguished from all other psychiatric syndromes by its two essential and defining characteristics including alternating separate and distinct personalities and multiple amnesic episodes. It becomes a disorder when the dissociation is persistent and interferes with the social and occupational functions necessary to everyday living. A typical person suffering from DID dissociates occasionally with everyday life occurrences that may or even may not be triggered by any type of stressor.

There is general agreement that the cause of MPD is repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse. The evidence for this claim has been challenged, however, and there are very few reported cases of MPD afflicting children. It should be distressing to those trying to defend the integrity of psychotherapy that a patient’s diagnosis depends upon the preconceptions of the therapist. However, an MPD patient typically has no memory of sexual abuse upon entering therapy. Only after the therapist encourages the patient do memories of sexual abuses emerge. Furthermore, the typical MPD patient does not begin manifesting “alters” until after treatment begins. MPD therapists counter these charges by claiming that their methods are tried and true, which they know from experience, and those therapists who never treat MPD don’t know what to look for.

Multiple selves exist. They are established, legitimated, maintained, and altered through social interaction after having been created out of the necessity of child to escape a horrible situation that their young minds are not capable of dealing with at that time. Those traumatic experiences a person has had have severely and drastically changed and impacted their lives. It is imperative that the sufferers of this disorder are correctly diagnosed by psychologists and accepted as having multiple personalities in order for them to be evaluated, treated, and eventually able to return to their normal lives as their lives should have originally been. In order for this to occur, the classification must be clear cut and definitive in order to find those suffering from DID and to correctly diagnose them. More research is needed to make this possible and to better the lives of those who need help in reaching a solution to coping and joining together their multiple personalities as one.

Flirtatious Behavior and Communication in regards to Gender Stereotypes

In high school I remember hearing ridiculous made-up statistics that men think about sex ever 6 seconds and women think about it maybe…once a week? Ideas like this, as well as the notion that men enjoy and want sex more than women would float around our minds and become topics of conversation. So many people tended to agree and even I fell victim to the beliefs that men were more preoccupied with sex than women. When trying to decide my topic for our literature review I heard a quote from the movie City Slickers which stated: “Women need a reason to have sex, men just need a place” and I did little research that indicated that men really do think about sex every 10 seconds (Richardson, 2003). I was shocked to see that even research tended to accept these specific stereotypes. I hated the way it was just accepted that men were sexually driven and that women were depicted as reluctant and not as interested in sex.

I am currently taking a psychology of gender course and we constantly discuss the stereotypes that exist between men and women. Masculinity is defined in a variety of ways that suggest men are supposed to be direct, independent, and strong and femininity consists of qualities resulting in weak, dependent, and submissive characteristics. There appear to be ways in which males and females are supposed to behave and it is looked upon as socially incorrect for individuals to behave otherwise. I knew I wanted to write about gender differences and decided to focus on the way males and females interact, specifically regarding flirtation.

I think we have all been accused of being a flirt at one point in our lives or another. My question is, have you men been more accused of being sexually motivated to flirt and you women just been motivated by friendliness. I know it used to be my excuse. I used to be called a tease and a flirt and my response to that was “…oh, I’m just being friendly.” I don’t know exactly why this was always my response to such a statement. Was I taught that that was a valid excuse for my behavior and was a way to dismiss the conversation? I’m not sure but I do know that I felt it was the only way I was supposed to respond to such a comment.

Past research has shown that men misperceive women’s intentions and view any form of friendly behavior from a woman as an indication of sexual interest (Abbey, 1982). Other studies also support that main idea that signifies men as more likely to perceive the world in sexual terms and to make more sexual judgments more than women (Abbey &Melby, 1986). Accepting these stereotypes has allowed for the false notion of inherent differences and has led to the prejudice that men are more sexually obsessed and driven; however, I argue that these ideas and behavioral results are socially constructed. I think that women have a tendency to label their flirtatious behavior as friendly because it is not socially acceptable for them to be considered sexual and it violates their notions of femininity.

So far, I have come up with two reasons why I believe that these flirtatious stereotypes between men and women are inaccurate. Motivation and cyber flirtation are showing that both men and women are behaving and verbally expressing themselves the same. Face-to-face interactions are the only ways in which men and women tend to differ. This is what has led me to the idea that there are significant influence biases that are the result of social expectations.

These are just a few of my ideas and if you have any other ideas or simply disagree with my stance feel free to tell me why or offer new things for me to consider. Thanks so much!

Current Naming Practices Among the Maya

The naming patterns used by the Maya is a unique process
which has changed throughout the years.  The Maya of Guatemala
constitute half of the population of the Central American country and
are a separate and distinct culture apart from the rest of the
populace.  The Maya have lived in the Highlands of Guatemala since the
arrival of the Spanish, who initiated drastic changes in the Maya
culture.  The Spanish introduced Catholicism and saint names to the
Maya, names which were quickly adopted by the indigenous populations.
With the acceptance of such names, naming practices among the Maya
began to change.  Further change was implemented during the civil war,
in which Guatemalan dictators attempted to assimilate the Mayan
population, a goal which they a attempted achieve through extreme
discrimination and occasional killings.  During the civil war, foreign
nations, such as the United States, aided Guatemala and their presence
was further felt throughout the country.  As a result, foreign names
were adopted among the Maya.
What constitutes the current naming practices of the Maya?  Perl and
Wiggins, researchers of US naming patterns, stated, “Although naming
within immigrant groups tends to become more like that of the general
U.S. culture as assimilation takes place, ethnic differences rarely
disappear altogether.”  As the US and other cultures become more
common throughout Guatemala, it is assumed that Mayan names will
become more like those of foreign countries.  However, although Maya
will most likely give names common in the United States and other
countries, they will not stop using traditional names altogether.
Additionally, Mayan based names will most likely be used.  These names
are similar to friction names which are used in South Africa.
Friction names serve as a tool on social commentary, and are used in
order to show a dislike for a current situation and one’s desire to
implement change.  Examples from South Africa include “neglect” or
“leave me”, both in reference to mistreatment from her husband.  Thus
as a result of the discriminated throughout Guatemala, the Mayan
population probably began to use friction names to show their dislike
of the current situation, much as it was used in South Africa.
The reason for the change can be attributed to factors such as
religion, education, and globalization.  Catholics are more likely to
use traditional, religious based names.  Perl and Wiggins stated,
“Names in Catholicism are likely strengthened by the fact that they
are woven into a wider array of religious symbols and practices that
are an integral part of Catholic identity.”   A magazine published by
a respected Roman Catholic community stated that naming one’s children
after someone other than a saint can be equated with being stuck with
an ugly, outdated hairstyle for life.  Evangelicals are less likely to
use a traditional name, and if they do use a religious name, are more
likely to use one from the Old Testament, as was found of Evangelicals
in the United States.  Education affects names due to the economical
advantage it provides and exposure to foreign cultures.  Those with
higher education are more financial stable and able to purchase
commodities which help foreign cultures to fill their lives, such as
televisions.  Additionally, while studying, these individuals have to
travel away from home to areas such as Guatemala City, where they
learn about foreign cultures and often adopt their practices.
Finally, globalization is most likely the largest reason for name
changes. Globalization is an ever increasing force in the world, and
is not only the exchange of commerce but also of culture.  As
globalization has allowed foreign cultures to have a more prominent
force among the Maya, so too have foreign names gained a more
prominent role.  Names are often a reflection of motives or feelings
that arise from and between parents.  Several parents use foreign
names as a result of their desire for their children to be successful
and follow in the paths of those foreigners who made an impact upon
the world.

A Comparison of Therapies Used to Alleviate Grief in Children

Life is full of surprises—some good and some bad. Imagine a little girl goes home after a fun day of kindergarten and finds her mother collapsed on the ground. The little girl’s father reaches out to touch her fragile shoulders and states, “your mother has died”. What does she think? How does she react? Is she confused because she doesn’t fully understand what it means to die? Is she sad or angry? Does she run away to be by herself and let out the tears?

Many children of all ages are bombarded with the unfortunate death of a loved one, as life ultimately ends in death. Younger children may not fully comprehend the extent of the loss, but they will notice the lack of presence of that person in their life and it will affect them in one way or another. Whether an infant or a ten-year-old, each child experiences common grief symptoms following the death of a loved one. Such symptoms include, but are not limited to, separation anxiety, jealousy, guilt, depression, nightmares, demands for attention, poor school performance, and crying (McCown & Davies, 1995). These symptoms can be painful for children and even magnified if not dealt with in a proper way.

Therapy is an avenue that successfully aids children in coping with their grief. Once a child decides to take the route of therapy, there comes a question of which type of therapy to engage in. The most widespread therapies used are play therapy and art therapy, which includes music and the visual arts. Play therapy focuses on a child-directed, self-healing process allowing children to feel powerful and capable. It offers a boost in self-esteem as it trusts in the child’s inner motivation to deal with grief and heal (Hospice Care for, 2001). On the other hand, art therapy is a family-centered approach to healing that offers direct access to a child’s world by entering their imagination where thoughts, feelings, and ideas are freely expressed. A child’s deepest, strongest, and most difficult feelings are often associated with nonverbal representations such as paintings or drawings (Helping Bereaved Children, 1993). Also, music is a universal language shared throughout the world and different genres and sounds evoke and unveil different emotions that can be addressed and dealt with (Moody, R. A. & Moody, C. P., 1991). Although play therapy stresses a child’s inner strength and healing capabilities, art therapy will more fully relieve grief symptoms as research indicates that family needs to be incorporated into the healing process for proper healing to take place (Casdagli, 1995).

Guilt is one of the most common symptoms of grief. It arises when a parent tries to shield the reality and circumstances of a death from their child, which happens all too often. As a result, the child suspects that their bad behavior is the cause of the anger or sadness the parent is experiencing and the child expresses guilt (Norris-Shortle et al., 1993). When critically comparing the two therapies in their treatment of this symptom, art therapy proves to be more effective. Play therapy treats guilt adequately by fostering the direct release of guilt in the form of hostility. It is released in a healthy way through the kicking or hitting of soft pillows in wide open areas (Smith, 1991). However, since the root cause of guilt is related to parents’ dishonesty and misleading behavior, art therapy is more effective in treatment of this symptom because parents are present and can clarify the child’s behavior is not the cause of the sadness or anger and fully resolve the guilt.

Further research expands on this premise that art therapy is more effective than play therapy in treating children’s symptoms of grief. Even so, the alleviation of grief in children still deserves more research so that children can heal sooner following these tragedies and the overall well-being of children in society can flourish.

Treating schizophrenia: Drugs versus psychotherapy

Schizophrenia is a serious mental disorder that many people experience. It is known for causing abnormal perceptions and expressions of reality. Some of these abnormalities include, but are not limited to: hallucinations, paranoid, delusions, disorganized speech, and disorganized thought. One of the main controversies surrounding schizophrenia is how to treat those who have it. Essentially there are two methods for treating schizophrenia. One method is through the prescription of drugs and the other is through psychotherapy. It is not uncommon to use both methods when treating schizophrenia. In the early days of psychology, the main method of treatment for schizophrenia was psychotherapy. Today, most psychologists believe that medicinal drugs are the solution to helping people overcome schizophrenia.
Medical drugs used to treat schizophrenia are very effective in quickly suppressing certain symptoms such as hallucinatory activity, algid delusive moments, evolutionary stages of schizophrenia, and many others (Ballus, 1997). In other words, the drugs used to treat schizophrenia are good at covering up symptoms, not getting rid of them. Although, when treating urgent cases of schizophrenia, drug’s quick response is very helpful. The problem with using drugs is that, over time, they may actually worsen the situation. In many cases drugs can promote side effects and these side effects can sometimes cause people to experience a relapse of schizophrenia. This relapse is a serious issue because not only does it take a person back to his or her state of mental disorder, but it may cause the persons conditions to worsen, leaving them more disabled than before. Further, those who abuse illegal drugs or have had a history of drug abuse often do not react very well to prescription drugs. Prescription drugs may work for a while, but studies have shown that some patients will end up abusing them, and other patients will discontinue their use due to the side effects that they are experiencing.
A better and safer method to treating schizophrenia is through psychotherapy. Some psychologists hold that psychotherapy can more effectively overcome the effects the schizophrenia and not just cover them up. These psychologists hold this position because the majority of schizophrenic cases arise from past psychological experiences. An experienced therapist who is well trained could very easily help his or her patient overcome any psychotic sufferings that are related or linked to their schizophrenic behavior (Strupp, 1986). It is further stressed by these psychologists that psychotherapy is more successful in getting to the root of the problem. They claim that psychotherapy can naturally change a patient’s thought process and therefore produce a greater improvement in the patient (Tuma, 1975).
In resume, the use of drugs in treating schizophrenia is controversial because it can mask short term side effects, but it can also make the situation much worse in the future. Schizophrenia is a very sensitive and serious disorder. When treating schizophrenia, we should try to use the safest method that involves the least amount of side effects. This may mean that the process of treating schizophrenia will take longer, but it will be more successful. It is important that we help schizophrenics to get rid of their symptoms and not just cover them up. This is why we need to use less drugs and more psychotherapy.

Music and the Reduction of Stress

In our day and age music is everywhere. We have it in our homes, cars, i-pods, and even our phones. We could literally listen to music all day long if we wanted too. Hopefully most of us have other things to do with at least some of the day but the moral of the story is that music is everywhere. However, generally when music gets some attention, especially in the media, it is negative attention. Violent music has been blamed for everything from delinquency to outright violence. Now while I don’t necessarily agree that music can cause anything if music has such power to affect us negatively wouldn’t it follow that the nonviolent music would have an opposite effect? In fact, that is exactly what it does have.
Relaxing music can be a means of reducing stress in a variety of situations and it doesn’t even have to be the kind that you have to pay for. Self selected relaxing music is actually generally more beneficial than music that claims to be specifically composed for the purpose of relaxation or even classical music. Being able to choose our own music gives people a sense of control and generally when we are stressed we feel like our lives are somewhat out of control. Also people tend to choose music that they like which helps the music to be effectively relaxing. Although the one caution about choosing your own music is that it is generally not helpful to choose rock music because it tends to hinder people’s ability to relax. However, this is generally not a problem because people can feel that and so they don’t often choose it.
Now while music can be used simply to help people relax at home if they are having a hard day that is far from its only benefit in relieving stress. One of the great things about music as a means of relieving stress is its availability and versatility. A person can play music almost anywhere and it can be helpful in very differing levels of stress from drivers stress in congested areas to chemotherapy or pregnancy. The reason that music is so effective in these varying situations has not only to do with the effect that the sound of the music has on our mind and body, but also its ability to act as a distraction. Music can take you to another place away from your worries.
There is some debate about whether music is the most effective way to reduce stress and whether it actually has a physiological effect or merely a cognitive. Physiological meaning that it reduces heart rate, blood pressure and other things that are associated with relaxation and cognitive meaning that we feel more relaxed when we listen to it. However, although in carefully controlled laboratory experiments music does not always show greater effectiveness than other methods in more real life studies it has always shown to be extremely beneficial. Also although listening to music for short periods of time, with artificial stressors doesn’t show physiological results, repeated exposure does.
Music is also a very practical means of stress reduction because it is already so much a part of our lives and people do not have to go somewhere or learn how to listen to music. We innately know and we should use this knowledge to our benefit when we have those days or months that we feel stressed and anxious.

Parental Rights in the Pregnancy of a Minor

Teen pregnancy is a growing problem in today’s world. One of the most difficult situations is the parental rights of various parties. These interested parties include the mother of the child, the father of the child, and the parents of both, but particularly the parents of the mother. Though most everyone agrees that all these people are effected by the choices made regarding the pregnancy, the actual legal rights that should be given to each individual are hotly debated. Some say the mother is the most affected and should have sole ability to make decisions regarding her condition and that of her child’s. Others say the other parties should be legally involved. In general, the amount of say a person should have in the decision should be based on a legal commitment to emotionally, physically, and financially support the child.

It is generally agreed that the individual most affected by a teenage pregnancy is the mother of the baby. As a legal minor herself, the adolescent mother is placed in a legal debacle that no one has yet found a satisfactory solution to. The choices made in the months of the teen’s pregnancy are likely to drastically effect the rest of her life. However, since she is not yet able to sign herself out of school or even buy certain types of cough syrup because the legal system of the United States has declared her unable to make informed decisions, it seems backwards to allow her to be the sole person making this huge decision. The mother can hardly escape involvement in the choices regarding her pregnancy, and her rights should be protected regarding her own person, but she should not be allowed to make the sole decision when others are willing to make contributions.

The father of the child is sometimes completely apathetic to the situation, offering no support and taking no responsibility. Legally, this is his right. As harmful as the lack of responsibility assigned to the father of an illegitimate child in our society is it is sometimes worse. The father sometimes chooses to be involved, but only seems to be seeking to make things harder for the mother. He might refuse to sign adoption papers, which significantly decreases the chance of the child being adopted, but he may at the same time refuse to offer support to the child. On the brighter side, the father is sometimes very involved in the pregnancy and supportive of the mother. Removal of parental rights of the father would even farther excuse the father of responsibility, but if the father refuses to be involved in support of the child, he should not be allowed to prevent adoption.

The parents of a minor who has become a parent, particularly an adolescent mother who resides in their home, are involved at the very least in the care of the young girl as she experiences pregnancy. If the mother chooses to raise the child herself, they will likely become part-time care-givers. Furthermore, they still legally are responsible for their child. It is not logical that people so involved in the life of the mother should be legally unable to have say in choices made regarding it. And yet in 13 states, the parents do not even need to be informed of an abortion, and in another 13, parents must be notified, but need not give consent. These states argue that the right to terminate a pregnancy is solely that of the mother. However, if a parent agrees to take care of the baby, they should be able to prevent the termination of the pregnancy.

In general, the legal rights to helping make the decision regarding adolescent pregnancy should be determined by the willingness to take responsibility for the baby. If a girl does not want to give her child up for adoption, she needs to be willing to take parental responsibility. If a father does not want to at the very least financially support the baby, he should not be allowed to retain parental rights. If parents plan to disown their daughter for her pregnancy, they should not be able to make any decision regarding what happens with the infant.

Influence of LDS religion on Depression

I hadn’t known my roommate, Stephanie, very long before I could tell something was very troubling in her life. I distinctly remember a discussion we had in our bedroom one day. We didn’t go into the living room of our apartment because the conversation was too private, or perhaps we felt the need to keep it a secret because it would be too shameful if anyone else knew—they wouldn’t understand—they would be judgmental instead of compassionate. She began by telling me how stressful it was not getting into the Graphic Design program, that she wasn’t where she had expected she would be at this point in her life, and how lately it seemed like a big wall had been placed between her and God. Tears welled up in her eyes as she spoke of the heavy sadness, overwhelming isolation, intense confusion, and angry self-hatred. Her voice wavered, straining to convey the emotional pain she was experiencing, expressing how hopeless and helpless she felt. Stephanie didn’t know where to turn for help—she lived far away from her family, was not in a significant romantic relationship, and had not found it helpful talking with her church leaders. “And really,” Stephanie stated, “If I was a righteous Mormon girl I wouldn’t be unhappy.” And then, as the sobs came more violently, she cried out, “It just doesn’t make sense why I’m experiencing this. I read my scriptures and pray and that should always make me happy.”

Based on research, we would expect to see religion as a positive buffer against depression. However, in the LDS population, there is an increase in depression. This prevalence of depression is caused by the stigma that prohibits those experiencing mental distress from receiving clinical treatment and the social implications of “spiritual manifestations” such as prayer, scripture study, and church attendance solving all problems.

Religion has been explored as a possible factor influencing mental health in general and depression in particular. Theorists have proposed conflicting viewpoints concerning the effect of religion on mental health. Allport (1956), Frankl (1967) and Jung (1938) suggested that religion can have a positive effect on well-being by providing meaning and stability. Others, such as Freud (1949), Jones (1923) and Reik (1951) proposed a relation between religious behavior and neurosis wherein individuals use religion as a delusional effort toward wish fulfillment.

Research has attempted to define the role religion plays in mental health. In a longitudinal study of 1,650 respondents, Willits & Crider (1988) found that “religious attitudes positively related to overall well-being and community and marital satisfaction of both men and women,” and that “adherence to traditional religious beliefs was the most consistent positive correlate of well-being.”

The concept of intrinsic versus extrinsic religiosity has been shown to be an important variable in clarifying this complexity (Koenig, Kvale & Ferrel, 1988). Intrinsic religiosity is “religion as a meaning-endowing framework in terms of which all of life is understood: it is religion as proto-point” (Rychlak, 1977). Persons with this orientation find religion to be a “master motive” in life. Having “embraced a creed, the individual endeavors to internalize it and follow it fully” (Allport & Ross, 1967). Extrinsic religiosity, in contrast, is a “religion of comfort and social convention, a self- serving, instrumental approach shaped to suit oneself” (Donahue, 1985). Persons with this orientation use religion instrumentally to achieve other goals. Beliefs are shaped to fit the individual’s more primary needs. Intrinsic religiosity relates more to internalized values which direct behavior and provide a dimension of spirituality in life. Extrinsic religiosity views religion as a means of securing protection, relief from distress and social acceptance.

Wiebe & Fleck (1980) compared intrinsically and extrinsically religious and non-religious subjects. Intrinsic individuals “tended to have a greater concern for moral standards, conscientiousness, discipline, responsibility and consistency than those who were extrinsically religious or non-religious.” They also appeared to be more sensitive, dependent, empathetic, and open to their emotions.

Bergin, Master & Richards (1987) found that intrinsic religiosity is negatively correlated with anxiety and positively correlated with self- control and better personality functioning while the reverse was found for extrinsic. Other research confirms that extrinsic religiosity is usually related negatively to mental health (Baker & Gorsuch, 1977).

In a review of research related to religion and mental health, Judd (1985) concluded that internalized or intrinsic religiosity is solidly associated with mental health while extrinsic religiosity is not.

Functional MRI’s and their Rightful Place in Neuroscience

Functional magnetic resonance imaging—fMRI—has made quite a splash since its introduction a decade ago. Thousands of fMRI studies have explored a wide range of differences in brain activation (i.e. schizophrenic v. normal minds). Increasingly however, arguments are stirring over the reliability of fMRI findings. fMRI’s measure neuronal activity indirectly by detecting increases in blood flow in areas of the brain. Critics argue that this linking of complex mental functions to particular regions of the brain insinuates localization. Skeptics feel that fMRI’s overlook the networked nature of the brain.

The real issue that has been undermining functional MRI’s credibility is practitioner’s occasional improper use. “The silly pursuits are not terribly hard to find” (Dobbs 3). Studiers forget that fMRI’s are still young and have been using them for mapping that is far too complex. Studies have over exaggerated results and have caused a lot of controversy over the fMRI’s place in neuroscience.

It is true that fMRI technology must advance. Because of the impact it has had on neuroscience already, it is silly to think of throwing it out all together. fMRI’s show a lot of potential and have many benefits over alternative options. In contrast to CAT or PET scans, fMRI’s are noninvasive. Subjects don’t need to worry about taking in radioactive material. fMRI’s can model most of the brain in one to two minutes-as opposed to PET scans which can take over an hour. Because functional MRI’s are so noninvasive and readily repeatable, patients can be studied sequentially, allowing the impact of surgery or other interventions to be continually assessed. fMRI’s hold great promise for noninvasive mapping of the human brain. If given the chance, fMRI’s could alter neuroscience permanently.